Antibacterial nanofiber

ABSTRACT

Bacteria-responsive core-shell nanofibers and a process for the preparation thereof are described. The nanofibers release of an antibacterial agent in response to the presence of bacteria. The core of the nanofiber comprises a biocompatible polymer together with an antibacterial agent such as a quaternary ammonium compound, for example benzyl dimethyl tetradecyl ammonium chloride (BTAC). Surrounding the core is shell comprised of a bacterially degradable polymer, which is susceptible to break-down by bacterial enzymes such as lipase, or to acidic pH conditions. The shell may comprise, for example, polycaprolactone (PCL) and poly(ethylene succinate) (PES). The nanofibers may be incorporated into wound dressings.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. provisional patentapplication No. 62/561,943 filed Sep. 22, 2017 titled “AntibacterialNanofiber” assigned to the University of Manitoba as Applicant and namedinventors Song Liu and Sarvesh Logsetty, and which is expresslyincorporated herein by reference in its entirety and to which priorityis claimed.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present disclosure relates generally to antibacterial materials foruse in wound healing.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Wound infection is a global healthcare issue that affects the healingprocess. Appropriate wound dressing material can reduce the risk ofinfection by reducing or eliminating the invasion of pathogens. The useof antibacterial materials or agents in wound dressings can reduce riskof infection.

One approach to wound healing involves exposure of the wound toantibacterial drug release using systems that continuously elute anantibacterial agent, even if there is no bacterium present. Thisunnecessary release of an antibacterial agent is poorly timed with theneed for the agent, and may cause undesirable cytotoxicity to thesubject. Such cytotoxicity may impart delays in the healing process.Systems involving a constant and indiscriminant elution may result in adepletion of the antibacterial agent before exposure to bacteria occurs,and consequently may be ineffective when needed.

It is desirable to provide materials for use in wound healing thatprovide antibacterial properties when needed, in the presence ofbacteria.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

It is an object of the present disclosure to obviate or mitigate atleast one disadvantage of previous antibacterial materials or woundhealing materials.

There is provided a core-shell nanofiber comprising: a core comprisingan antibacterial agent and a biocompatible polymer; and a shellsurrounding the core comprising a bacterially degradable polymer.

Further, there is provided a core-shell nanofiber comprising: a corecomprising benzyl dimethyl tetradecyl ammonium chloride (BTAC) andpoly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP); and a shell comprising polycaprolactone(PCL) and poly(ethylene succinate) (PES).

A process is described for the preparation of an antibacterialcore-shell nanofiber comprising: coaxially electrospinning a fiber froma core material within a shell material to thereby form theantibacterial core-shell nanofiber; wherein: the core material comprisesan antibacterial agent and a biocompatible polymer; and the shellmaterial comprises a bacterially degradable polymer.

Further A nanofiber mat and a wound dressing are described comprisingthe nanofiber.

Other aspects and features of the present disclosure will becomeapparent to those ordinarily skilled in the art upon review of thefollowing description of specific embodiments in conjunction with theaccompanying figures.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Embodiments of the present disclosure will now be described, by way ofexample only, with reference to the attached Figures.

FIG. 1 is a schematic representation of the process for fabrication ofnanofibers.

FIG. 2 is an illustration of a core-shell nanofiber, and an overview ofthe degradation process by bacteria.

FIG. 3 shows the morphology of nanofibers with different ratios ofPCL:PES in Panels (a) to (c); different CS/PCL-PES or S/PCL-PES valuesin Panels (d) and (e); and distribution curve of fiber diameter inPanels (f) and (g).

FIG. 4 shows two exemplary TEM photos of the drug loaded antibacterialnanofiber.

FIG. 5 illustrates the morphology of nanofibers immersed in TSB(left-side) and supernatant (right-side) during 72 h; Panel (a) showsPCL, Panel (b) shows S/PCL:PES, and Panel (c) shows CS/PCL: PES.

FIG. 6 shows the cumulative release of single and core-shell nanofibers.

FIG. 7 shows fibroblast cell viability after 24 h of contact withnanofibers.

FIG. 8 shows fibroblast, S. aureus and E. coli viability after 24 h ofcontact with nanofibers.

FIG. 9 shows efficacy data after repeated challenge of nanofibermembranes (CS 3.5 and S3.5) with 8 Log S. aureus (29213).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Generally, the present disclosure provides an antibacterial nanofiberthat releases an antibacterial agent in response to the presence ofbacteria.

Tackling bacterial infection without compromising wound healing can beaddressed by using the antibacterial nanofibers described herein. Thenanofibers may, for example, be used in preparation of bacteriaresponsive wound dressings.

The antibacterial nanofiber comprises a core formed of a biocompatiblepolymer and an antibacterial agent. The core has a very fine width, andis coated with a bacteria degradable polymer. The biocompatible polymerof the core may be a water soluble polymer.

A core-shell nanofiber is described herein. The nanofiber comprises acore comprising an antibacterial agent and a biocompatible polymer; anda shell surrounding the core comprising a bacterially degradablepolymer.

The antibacterial agent may be any acceptable agent, such as a drug orbiocide. For example, the agent may comprise a quaternary ammoniumcompound (QAC). An exemplary antibacterial agent is benzyl dimethyltetradecyl ammonium chloride (BTAC).

The biocompatible polymer of the core may comprise any polymer thatwould support the antibacterial agent, and remain biocompatible, such aspoly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP). An exemplary core may comprise BTAC andPVP.

The shell is formulated so that the bacterially degradable polymer isdegraded by bacterial activity in its proximity, such as bacterialenzyme activity or by a drop in pH to 6 or less, indicative of bacterialactivity. An exemplary bacterial enzyme is lipase. The polymer fromwhich the shell is formulated is advantageously degradable by lipase.For example, the shell may comprise polycaprolactone (PCL) orpoly(ethylene succinate) (PES), or both.

An exemplary core-shell nanofiber is described which comprises: a corecomprising benzyl dimethyl tetradecyl ammonium chloride (BTAC) andpoly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP); and a shell comprising polycaprolactone(PCL) and poly(ethylene succinate) (PES).

The core may consist substantially of only BTAC and PVP; and the shellmay consist essentially of PCL and PES, but other components may beadded to the core and the shell.

When present in the core, BTAC may be present in an amount of from about1% to about 10%, by weight of the core, such as from 2% to 5%.

When present, the ratio of PCL to PES may be from about 1:5 to about5:1, such as 1:1.

The ratio of the core to the shell may be from about 1:5 to about 5:1 byweight, such as from 1:2 to 2:1 by weight.

A process is provided herein for preparation of an antibacterialcore-shell nanofiber. The process comprises coaxially electrospinning afiber from a core material within a shell material to thereby form theantibacterial core-shell nanofiber; wherein: the core material comprisesan antibacterial agent and a biocompatible polymer; and the shellmaterial comprises a bacterially degradable polymer.

Optionally, the electrospinning may comprise application of a voltagefrom about 5 kV to about 50 kV, such as 20 kV.

Core-shell nanofibers prepared by the above process are describedherein.

A nanofiber mat comprising a plurality of core-shell nanofibers isdescribed.

An antibacterial wound dressing comprising the core-shell or thenanofiber mat may be used, as described herein.

Further, a method is described for treating a wound, the methodcomprising applying to the wound the antibacterial wound describedherein.

A single electrospun antibacterial nanofiber is also described herein,which comprises polycaprolactone (PCL), poly(ethylene succinate) (PES),and from about 2 to 5% (by weight) TBAC as an antibacterial agent. Thesingle electrospun fiber possesses antibacterial activity.

Single spinning may be used to fabricate bacteria responsive wounddressing for combatting bacterial infection, and for on-demand releaseof an antibacterial agent.

When bacteria are present in a wound, bacterial activities such aslipase secretion and release of products that act to cause an acidic pH,are able to degrade the shell polymer, exposing the core. Once the shellbecomes adequately degraded, the antibacterial agent is released fromthe core in the location where it is needed, at a time when bacteria arepresent.

Wound dressings formed of or incorporating such antibacterial fibers areencompassed herein, such as may be made from other materials andimpregnated or coated with the nanofibers or nanofiber mats describedherein.

As referred to herein, an “antibacterial agent” encompasses a drug, abiocide, or an antimicrobial compound, which may include compounds orcombinations of compounds having anti-fungal, anti-bacterial oranti-viral activity. The antibacterial agent is incorporated in thenanofiber, protected from exposure to bacteria although remaining in anactive form. The agent is thus exposed, so as to assert itsantibacterial properties, only on an as-needed basis.

The nanofibers described herein are bacteria responsive systems that aredegraded in response to bacteria, and provide on-demand antibacterialagent release, such as drug or biocide release. More controllablerelease of core-shell nanofibers permits a controllable release, whilesingle nanofibers provide efficient and prolonged bacteria killingactivity. The selective release of antibacterial agents by thesenanofibers and efficacy against bacteria was accompanied by highviability of mammalian cells tested. Thus, efficient antibacterialactivity of nanofibers without comprising wound healing makes thesenanofibers advantageous for use in wound dressings to avoid or alleviatewound infections, and in other applications where antibacterial activityis required.

Example 1

Bacteria-Responsive Nanofibers for On-Demand Release of AntibacterialAgents to Address Wound Infections

Abstract. Nanofibers have been used as biocompatible materials for woundhealing in recent years. In this example, core-shell nanofibers areprepared and used to provide triggered release of an antibacterialagent. Due to bacterial activity, such as lipase secretion andacidification of pH, degradation of the shell material was facilitatedand resulted in the release of an incorporated antibacterial agentpresent in the core of the nanofiber. Bacteria triggered release of anantibacterial agent can advantageously replace other antibacterialstrategies that deploy unneeded release of antibacterial agents andwhich may result in cytotoxicity to a subject. The nanoscopic andcore-shell structure of the nanofibers were finely confirmed by scanningelectron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM).Due to bacterial activity, nanofibers were degraded in bacterialsupernatant at significantly higher levels than in non-enzymaticsolutions. Moreover, bacteria responsive core-shell nanofibers showed amore controllable release of the antibacterial agent, which resulted inprolonged effective antibacterial efficacy, and lower cytotoxicity tofibroblast cells.

Introduction.

Skin injuries especially chronic wounds are a global healthcare issueand the healing process of a wound is highly influenced by the wounddressing material. The use of antibacterial agents to eliminate invasionand colonization of pathogens in a wound is an important aspect in thewound dressing. Antibacterial agents have been incorporated intodifferent biomaterials for antibacterial activity (Augustine et al,2016). Previous approaches to the design of antibacterial releasingsystems have involved continuous release of bioactive compounds, even ifno bacteria is present. This unneeded release of antibacterial agentscould cause undesirable cytotoxicity, which can delay the healingprocess. Further, continuous elution may deplete the system of itsantibacterial agent before infection occurs. This would render suchsystems ineffective, and poses additional pressure on healthcare costs.Treatment failure and prolonged therapy may be the result of suchsystems (Craig et al., 2016). Therefore, it is important to addressinfection without compromising wound healing.

To reduce the misuse and overuse of antibacterial agents, abacteria-responsive system may be used. Bacteria possess differentvirulence factors, which can act as triggers for such systems (see, forexample Thet et al., 2016; and Traba & Liang 2015). As a result, asystem would release its antimicrobial payload only when interactingwith bacteria. Enzymes are a virulence factor that may be used totrigger a bacteria responsive systems. For example, hyaluronidaseenzymes secreted by S. aureus have been used for triggering release ofbacteriophage K embedded in a photo-cross-linkable hyaluronic acid basedhydrogel (Bean et al., 2014). In S. aureus, the protease enzyme was usedto stimulate degradation of polypeptide based drug-loaded particles(Craig et al., 2015).

Unlike hyaluronidase enzyme which is mostly secreted by Gram-positivebacteria with little to no excretion in gram negative bacteria, lipaseis secreted by both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Ascompared to protease enzyme that naturally presents in extracellularmatrix (ECM) and is secreted by white blood cells in the wound site,lipase is mostly the product of bacteria.

Lipase-labile bonds, such as fatty acid esters or anhydrides can bedegraded in response to lipase. Polycaprolactone (PCL) is abiodegradable polyester with the low hydrolytic degradation. A lipasesensitive triple-layered nanogel (TLN) has been used as a carrier foron-demand drug delivery (Xiong et al., 2012a). In this approach, the TLNcontained a PCL interlayer between the cross-linked polyphosphoestercore and the shell of poly(ethylene glycol). The PCL fence of TLN wassubjected to degradation by the activity of bacterial lipases.

A rapid rate of response is desirable. The faster a system responds to atriggering factor secreted by bacteria, the more effective the systemwill be. The rate of response is dependent on both physical and chemicalstructure of the system. Systems with a large surface area such asnanoparticles and nanofibers, may be triggered faster.

In the system described in this example is an electrospun polymericnanofiber having high porosity and excellent pore interconnectivity.This system leads to advantages for use in wound dressing materials. Thenanofiber described permits intimate contact with wound areas despitehighly variable or irregular wound shapes and sizes. Thus, theprotection of an open wound from external physical pressures andcontamination would be facilitated using the described nanofiber.Further, a greater opportunity for the self-healing process to occur,and lower risk of scar formation is provided by the described nanofiber.Permeability of the nanofiber, and of wound dressings made from thenanofiber, to moisture and air allows the extraction of wound exudate toprovide a moisturized environment and prevent infection.

Polycaprolactone (PCL) has the advantage of being a biodegradablesynthetic polymer, with excellent biocompatibility and efficacy both invitro and in vivo. However, its highly hydrophobic nature and slowdegradation has previously hindered its use in biomedical applications,such as in wound dressings. To overcome this limitation, PCL can beblended with another biodegradable polymer. Poly(ethylene succinate)(PES) is an aliphatic biodegradable polyester, which has higher rate ofdegradation than PCL (Hoang et al., 2007).

In this example, electrospun nanofibrous mats are prepared based on PCLand PES, with effective degradation in response to bacteria.

Single electrospun nanofibers are prepared, which due to the superficialeffect in a nanoscale size, the antibacterial agent (drug) particles inthe single electrospun nanofibers tend to accumulate on the surface ofthe fibers prepared. Therefore, a large amount of the antibacterialagent is released at the initial stage of bacterial infection in anuncontrolled manner. As a consequence, whenever an infection lasts for aprolonged time, much of the antimicrobial content of wound dressing mayhave been released in early stage of infection. These main drawbacks inthe use of antimicrobial wound dressings can be avoided through the useof core-shell nanofibers fabricated through co-axial electrospinning (Heet al., 2017; Yang et al., 2011).

In this example, two immiscible solutions are pushed through twoconcentrically located needles that form a single outlet. As thesolutions are pumped out of the needles, the outer polymer (or “shell”)material covers the inner (or “core”) material, which comprises anantimicrobial agent or drug. As a result, the polymer nanofibers soformed have a core-shell structure. Drug preservation in the corematerial prevents the uncontrolled release of the drug, and ensures evendistribution of the drug, which leads to prolonged antimicrobialefficacy.

The core-shell nanofibers prepared have a PCL/PES shell, and contain asa drug within the core: benzyl dimethyl tetradecyl ammonium chloride(BTAC) for antibacterial activity. In the core material, the BTAC isdissolved in poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP), which serves as core. Thenanofibers form nanofiber mats, which have the potential to be degradedin response to bacteria. Drug release and antibacterial efficacy ofsingle and core-shell nanofibers are compared. Morphology, diameter, andthe core-sell structure of nanofibers are evaluated using SEM and TEM.Cytotoxicity of the nanofibers was evaluated.

Materials and Methods.

The described nanofiber comprises a shell of polycaprolactone andpoly(ethylene succinate); and a core of poly(vinylpyrrolidone) as thecore polymer and benzyl dimethyl tetradecyl ammonium chloride (BTAC) asthe core antibacterial agent. Bacterial activity, comprising lipasesecretion and acidic pH, was used to degrade the shell. Once the shellbecame adequately degraded, the antibacterial agent was released fromthe core. Further details are outlined below.

Materials

Polycaprolactone (PCL) 80,000 MW, poly(ethylene succinate) (PES) 10,000MW, poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP) 40,000 MW, dimethylformamide (DMF),dichloromethane (DCM), benzyl dimethyl tetradecyl ammonium chloride(BTAC) as an antibacterial drug,3-(4,5-Dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT),dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), and orange II sodium salt were purchased fromSigma.

The structure of the polymers is as shown below.

An Inoveso electrospining apparatus (Model Ne300, Turkey), was used tofabricate single and core-shell nanofibers. Staphylococcus aureus (S.aureus—ATCC 29213) and Escherichia coli (E-coli—ATCC 25922) were used asgram positive and gram negative bacteria. ATCC-PCS-201 neonatal humandermal fibroblast was purchased from Cedarlane Corporation, Canada.

Fabrication of Nanofibers

PCL and PES were dissolved in DCM:DMF (4:1) at a concentration of 8 wt %uncontrolled manner and 20 wt %. PCL solution (8 wt %) was mixed withPES solution (20 wt %) in volume ratios of (PCL:PES) 5:1, 2:1, and 1:1.Then, the mixed solutions were subjected to the single electrospinningexperiment. Voltage (20 kV), flow rate of solution (1 mL/h), anddistance between syringe and collector (18 cm) were set for each of thesamples.

For core-shell electrospinning, PVP was considered as core component andthe same solution in the single nanofibers as shell component. PVP wasdissolved in DCM:DMF (4:1) at a concentration of 15 wt %. Flow rates ofcore and shell solution were 0.3 and 1 ml/h, respectively.

To prepare drug loaded nanofibers, BTAC was dissolved in DCM and addedto PCL/PES blend for single nanofibers or to PVP for core-shellnanofibers. 2.5%, 3.5%, and 4.5% of BTAC with respect to weight of wholepolymer was used to study the antibacterial efficacy of nanofibers. Thesample codes are listed in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Feed composition of fabricated nanofibers Sample code Feedcomposition PCL:PES 5:1 PCL 8% + PES 20% PCL:PES 2:1 PCL:PES 1:1 S 2.5Single electrospining: S 3.5 PCL 8% + PES 30% (1:1) + S 4.5 2.5, 3.5,and 4.5% BTAC CS 2.5 Co-axial electrospining: CS 3.5 Shell: PCL 8% + PES30% (1:1) CS 4.5 Core: PVP 15% + 2.5, 3.5, and 4.5% BTAC

FIG. 1 shows a schematic representation of the process (100) forfabrication of nanofibers. Briefly, a blend of PVP and BTAC is providedin a core syringe (102), while a blend of PCL and PES is provided in theshell syringe (104), which are combined in a common extruding syringe(106), subjected to a voltage (108) of 20 kV, and the nanofiber (110)was collected at a collector (112). A photomicrograph of the nanofibermat (114) formed and of an individual fiber (116) are shown.

FIG. 2 provides a diagrammatic illustration of the resulting nanofiber,and an overview of the degradation process (200) by bacteria (202). Thenanofiber comprises the core polymer (204) which contains anantibacterial drug (206), and the shell polymer (208). Upon exposure tothe bacteria (202) a degraded fiber (210) is formed, from which theantibacterial drug (206) is slowly released.

Morphology of Nanofibers

Morphology and diameter of nanofibers were studied by secondary electronmicroscope (SEM, FEI Nova NanoSEM 450). To visualize the effect ofbacterial activity on degradation of nanofibers, fibers were immersed inbacterial supernatant solution and Tryptone Soya broth (TSB) for 72 h,and observed them under SEM. 18 h cultured bacteria (10⁸ CFU mL⁻¹) wereused to prepare the supernatant. The supernatant was centrifuged from 18h culture (5000 rpm for 15 min) and then filter-sterilized (0.22 μmfilters) before storage at 4° C.

The core-shell structure of the prepared nanofibers was characterized bytransmission electron microscopy (JEOL JEM-2100F) at an acceleratingvoltage of 200 kV, for which carbon-coated copper grids were used tocollect the nanofibers.

Drug Release Measurement

To study the drug release, nanofibers were immersed in bacterialsupernatant and TSB (4 mg in 2 mL media) and incubated at 37° C. Toobtain the cumulative release of BTAC, 600 μL of eluted drug medium wasremoved for quantification; this volume replaced with fresh supernatantto provide sink conditions. Removed media was mixed with 0.25 mL orangeII dye solution. After 5 min, 600 μL chloroform was added to thedye-BTAC complex, and the mixture was vortexed for 45 s to ensure thatthe chloroform and dye were mixed thoroughly. 600 μL of the chloroformphase (the bottom layer) was removed into a UV silica cuvette, and theabsorbance was measured at 485 nm. The structures of (a) orange II dyeand (b) BTAC are shown below.

Antibacterial Test

The antibacterial activity of the nanofiber mats was tested by colonycounting method against Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and E. coli,which are commonly found on burn wounds. For the antibacterial studies,logarithmic-phase cultures were prepared by initially suspending severalcolonies in phosphate buffered saline (PBS, 0.1 M, pH 7.4) at a densityequivalent to a 0.5 McFarland standard of 1×10⁸ colony forming units(CFU) mL⁻¹ and then diluted 100 times to 1×10⁶ CFU mL⁻¹. 15 μL of thediluted E-coli and S. aureus suspension was further diluted into 45 mLcation-supplemented MuellerHinton (MH) broth and TSB, respectively.After culturing in the incubator at 37° C. for overnight, theconcentration of bacteria went up to 10⁸ CFU mL⁻¹.

2 mL of bacteria suspension was added to 4 mg of nanofibers andincubated. At the predetermined contact times, 150 μL of bacteriaculture was taken from the flask, neutralized, and decimal serialdilutions with PBS were repeated with each initial sample. 30 μL of thediluted sample was then spread onto four zones of a Tryptone Soya agarplate (CM 0131, OXOID). After incubation of the plates at 37° C. for 18h, the number of viable bacteria (colonies) was counted manually forcontrol (A, bacteria suspension without sample) and BTAC-loadednanofibers (B). Bacteria reduction was reported as percentage and Log10. The percentage reduction of bacteria (%)=(A−B)/A×100; and logarithmreduction=log(A/B).

Cytotoxicity Tests

An in vitro cytotoxicity assay was conducted on fibroblast cells(ATCC-PCS-201 neonatal human dermal fibroblast) to evaluate the effectof drug-loaded nanofibers. Nanofibers were cut in to the same shape andweighted to 4 mg (triplicate). They were pre-soaked in 1 mL of ethanolfor 10 min. Samples were exposed to UV light for 45 min (each side).Fibroblast cells were cultured in 24 well-plates at density of 1×10⁵(cell/mL). After reaching to 90% confluence, 2 mL of fibroblast culturemedium was added to each of the wells and the dressings. Afterwards, thecells were incubated at 37° C. for 24 h. Cell viability was determinedusing MTT assay after removal of dressings. Each well received 500 μL of1:10 (v/v) MTT and fibroblast medium solution. Subsequently, after 2 hincubation at 37° C., the culture medium with the MTT solution wereaspirated and replaced by 500 μL DMSO. Finally, 100 μL aliquots fromeach well (in triplicate) were transferred to 96-well plates andviability of cells was evaluated using spectrophotometer at 570 nmwavelength (PowerWave™ XS2 Microplate Spectrophotometer, BioTekInstruments Inc., Canada).

Results and Discussion.

In summary, the BTAC-loaded core-shell nanofibers significantlyinhibited Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli growth over 2hours. The core-shell structure provided the more controlled release ofBTAC and prolonged antibacterial properties, as compared to singlenanofibers. The core-shell nanofibers exhibited minimal cytotoxicityagainst fibroblast cells, with greater than 80% viable cells remainingafter 24 hours of contact. The tested core-shell nanofibers can be usedfor on-demand release of antibacterial agents effective againstlipase-secreting bacteria.

The exceptional properties of these bacteria responsive core-shellnanofibers, which degraded in response to the presence of bacteria, canprovide on-demand biocide release. Core-shell nanofibers are capable ofa controllable release, and can provide efficient and prolongedbacterial killing activity as needed, when bacteria are present.However, the delay in the initiation of release until such bacteria arepresent provides an advantage that no antibacterial agent is deployedwhen it is not needed. The selective release of antibacterial agent fromthe core-shell nanofibers permitted the exposed fibroblast cells tomaintain high cell viability. Efficient antibacterial activity ofnanofibers, without comprising wound healing, makes core-shellnanofibers advantageous systems to approach a reduction in woundinfections.

Morphology of Electrospun Nanofibers

SEM photos were taken to study the morphology of nanofibers.

FIG. 3 shows the morphology of nanofibers with different ratios of PCL.Panel (a) shows PCL:PES 5:1; Panel (b) shows PCL:PES 2:1; Panel (c)shows PCL-PES 1:1; Panel (d) shows CS/PCL-PES (30%)/1:1/2.5% BTAC; Panel(e) shows S/PCL-PES (30%)/1:1/2.5% BTAC. Panel (f) shows a largerversion of the inset distribution curve of panel (d) showing a meandiameter of 346 nm (+79.21 SD); and Panel (g) shows a larger version ofthe inset distribution curve of panel (e) showing a mean diameter of329.16 nm (+57.70 SD).

The PES solution that was used in the nanofibers had 20% primaryconcentration. All the ratios reflected the merged morphology. FIG. 3,Panel (c) that related to PCL-PES 1:1, had a higher ratio of PES thanother samples. Due to relatively lower molecular weight of PES than PCL,the higher the amount of PES in the polymer solution resulted in lowerspinability and more beads.

Increasing the concentration of PES from 20% to 30% caused a significantchanged in the morphology of the nanofibers. As can be seen in the FIG.1, Panel (d) and Panel (e), the morphology of core-shell and singlenanofibers changed from bead-and-string to a completely fibrousstructure. A 1:1 ratio for PCL:PES is preferable to other ratios,because of higher degradability of PES than PCL. Thus, thisconcentration and ratio were maintained in all of the followingexperiments.

Both single and core-shell drug-loaded nanofibers showed a nano-sizeddiameter. As it was expected, core-shell nanofibers had a slightlyhigher diameter (346 nm) than single ones (329 nm), because of highersyringe internal diameter (inner diameter for shell in core-shellsyringe: 1.2 mm; and for single syringe: 0.8 mm).

To confirm the core-shell structure of nanofibers, TEM photos of drugloaded nanofibers (shell: PCL/PES, core: PVP/2.5% BTAC) were taken. Toprepare the sample, polymer solution was directly electrospun on carboncoated cupper grids. The micrographs clearly showed the core-shellstructure of nanofibers. A sharp boundary between shell and core alongthe length of the fiber was present, which was due to differentviscosity of core and shell solution and partial-immiscibility. Thepresence of nitrogen in PVP and BTAC could enhance the TEM contrast overthat of PCL/PES.

FIG. 4 shows two exemplary TEM photos of the drug loaded antibacterialnanofiber (shell: PCL/PES, core: PVP, 2.5% BTAC), with the right sidephoto being more highly magnified than the left side photo.

To better understand the effect of PES on the degradation, nanofiberswere immersed in TSB and bacterial supernatant for 72 h and were studiedusing SEM photos. Different degradability of PCL and PES could beobserved.

FIG. 5 illustrates the morphology of nanofibers immersed in TSB(left-side) and supernatant (right-side) during 72 h; Panel (a) showsPCL, Panel (b) shows S/PCL:PES, and Panel (c) shows CS/PCL: PES.

Different degradability of PCL and PES is emphasized by comparison ofPanels (a) and (b). Nanofibers containing PES showed higherdisintegration than PCL after immersion in media. That was the reasonthat we chose the nanofibers with higher ratio of PES (1:1). On theother hand, bacterial supernatant had significant impact on degradationof nanofibers containing PES. Bacterial activity caused enzymaticdegradation of ester linkage in the PES nanofibers. This observation wasconsistent with the study by Hoang et al., (2007) which comparedenzymatic biodegradation of PES, PCL, and poly (3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB)in the form of films. PES films showed rough surfaces and small cracksin the inoculated culture after 2 days. PHB and PCL films were degradedwithin 6 days, however the rate of their degradation was lower than PES.

Drug Release Measurements

Nanofibers were immersed in bacteria supernatant and TSB and their drugrelease was measured using spectrophotometry method during 24 h.

FIG. 6 shows the cumulative release of single and core-shell nanofibers(solid lines: single nanofibers, dash lines: core-shell nano-fibers),illustrating that the release of BTAC in TSB (13.1% for S 2.5) is muchlower than release in bacteria supernatant (46.1% for S 2.5), which wasdue to bacterial activity (P-value: 0.0001). Besides, comparison ofcumulative release between PCL 2.5 (15.9%) and S 2.5 (46.1%) insupernatant significantly showed the role of PES in the degradation. S2.5 was fabricated through blending the PCL and PES with 1:1 blendratio. These results were consistent with degradation study by SEM.Higher degradation rate of PES than PCL, significantly affected thecumulative release of BTAC. It is worthy of mention that all thecore-shell nanofibers displayed less cumulative release percentage thansingle equivalents, which mostly related to lower burst release in thefirst 2 h.

The slow release was due to the fact in the core-shell nanofiber releasewas dependent on (1) degradation of the shell in presence of enzyme and(2) dissolution of PVP as the matrix polymer in the core. In addition,more controllable release in core-shell nanofibers compared to singlenanofibers was obvious in the first 2 h. Less burst release for CS 2.5could be observed compared with S 2.5 (the slope of graph is lower inthe first 2 h). This controllable release could cause later depletion ofBTAC. This observation indicated effective encapsulation of BTAC intothe core. Core-shell nanofibers could keep the antibacterial propertiesfor longer time. This feature also could decrease the cost associatedwith wound healing. The core-shell structure alleviates the initialburst release and prolongs the release period. However, for singlenanofibers formed using a traditional blending electrospinning system,the drug was simply incorporated into ultrafine fibers by dispersingparticles into the polymer solution directly. Thus, the agents mightmigrate fast to the surface or near the surface of the fibers during theelectrospinning process, which would lead to severe initial burstrelease of the loaded drugs. The severe burst release then could lead toexcessive initial drug delivery and affect long term antibacterialproperties.

Antibacterial Activity

The design of an antimicrobial and biocompatible wound dressing wasevaluated. BTAC was chosen from among many possible antibacterialcompounds for use in the present Example. Use of other antibacterialcompounds is anticipated. Quaternary ammonium (QA) salts are well-knownas efficacious biocides against microorganisms including bacteria, andfungi. Given their amphiphilic nature, QACs demonstrate a detergent-likemechanism of action against microbial life. Electrostatic interactionsbetween the positively charged QAC head and the negatively chargedbacterial cellular membrane are followed by permeation of the QAC sidechains into the intramembrane region, ultimately leading to leakage ofcytoplasmic material and cellular lysis.

Table 2 and Table 3 show the antibacterial efficacy of the nanofiberwith different formulations against S. aureus and E. coli with ˜8 LogCFU/mL concentration.

TABLE 2 Antibacterial activity of S. aureus against nanofibers withdifferent formulations and different contact times. Contact time (min) 510 20 30 60 120 CS 2.5 % 45.7 ± 3.7 61.6 ± 4.7 — 82.8 ± 3.9 96.1 ± 1.097.9 ± 0.3 Log₁₀  1.4 ± 0.2  6.6 ± 0.3 S 2.5 % 67.3 ± 8.5 88.7 ± 1.7 —94.6 ± 3.0 97.6 ± 0.8 100.0 Log₁₀  1.6 ± 0.3 8.8 CS 3.5 % 78.4 ± 6.988.3 ± 1.5 — 99.5 ± 0.5 99.9 ± 0.1 100.0 Log₁₀  2.1 ± 0.2  2.9 ± 0.4 8.8S 3.5 % 75.3 ± 1.3 90.7 ± 0.8 99.5 ± 0.8 99.7 ± 0.4 100.0 100.0 Log₁₀ 2.3 ± 0.4  2.6 ± 0.3  8.8 8.8 CS 4.5 % 99.6 ± 0.3 100.0 — Log₁₀  2.4 ±0.2  8.9 S 4.5 % 100.0 — Log₁₀  8.9 PCL 2.5 % 34.4 ± 6.6 47.7 ± 6.8 50.4± 4.0 58.0 ± 2.9 65.5 ± 6.6 83.9 ± 1.3 Log₁₀ BTAC % 96.1 ± 0.2 98.5 ±0.9 100.0 — Log₁₀  1.4 ± 0.2  1.8 ± 0.3  8.9

TABLE 3 Antibacterial activity of E. coli against nanofibers withdifferent formulations and different contact times. Contact time (min) 510 20 30 60 120 CS 2.5 %  7.9 ± 0.9 15.5 ± 3.1 — 53.0 ± 5.2 60.3 ± 5.296.9 ± 0.5 Log₁₀  1.5 ± 0.1 S 2.5 % 14.9 ± 3.8 26.3 ± 3.1 — 74.0 ± 2.078.6 ± 3.6 98.9 ± 0.4 Log₁₀   2 ± 0.1 CS 3.5 % 27.2 ± 1.4  37.1 ± 1.82 —94.8 ± 0.5 95.2 ± 0.4 100 Log₁₀  1.3 ± 0.1 8.9 S 3.5 % 38.9 ± 3.8 49.1 ±3.1 61.6 ± 4.2 96.3 ± 0.6 97.1 ± 0.4 100 Log₁₀  1.4 ± 0.2  1.5 ± 0.1 8.9CS 4.5 % 45.9 ± 0.9 60.8 ± 3.5 70.2 ± 1.7 97.0 ± 0.3 99.3 ± 0.2 100Log₁₀  1.5 ± 0.1  2.2 ± 0.3 8.9 S 4.5 % 57.3 ± 4.3 64.9 ± 2.3 76.6 ± 3.097.8 ± 0.1 100.0 100 Log₁₀  1.7 ± 0.0  8.9 8.9 PCL 2.5 %  5.7 ± 2.9 12.0± 1.8 24.0 ± 4.6 38.3 ± 6.8 48.7 ± 5.6 47.8 ± 3.2 Log₁₀ BTAC % 95.3 ±0.3 96.0 ± 0.2 98.8 ± 0.5 100.0 Log₁₀  1.3 ± 0.0  1.4 ± 0.1  1.9 ± 0.1 8.9

According to the results achieved, antibacterial activity of thenanofibers progressively increased as the contact time increased. Asexperimentally demonstrated, all the core-shell nanofibers showed lessbacteria inhibition than single nanofibers. The hydrophobic nature ofthe shell (PCL and PES) could effectively retard the penetration ofwater into the fibers and thereby prolong the release period of BTAC andconsequently the antibacterial efficacy over time. It is worth notingthat antibacterial activity of nanofibers against S. aureus asGram-positive bacteria is higher than Gram-negative bacteria (E. coli),which is due to outer membrane containing lipopolysaccharides ingram-negative bacteria. Because QACs target the bacterial cell membrane,they can be considered to be broad-spectrum antibiotics though theyexhibit markedly increased activity against Gram-positive bacteria.Gram-positive bacteria possess a single phospholipid cellular membraneand a thicker cell wall composed of peptidoglycan, Gram-negativebacteria are encapsulated by two cellular membranes and a rather thinlayer of peptidoglycan. It is due to the presence of this secondmembrane that QACs and other membrane-targeting antiseptics tend toexhibit decreased activity against Gram-negative species.

The antibacterial property of free BTAC was evaluated and compared withthe result for BTAC-loaded nanofibers. The concentration of free BTACwas equivalent to cumulative release of S 3.5 within 2 h. S 3.5 obtained100% bacteria inhibition against S. aureus and E. coli, within 30 and120 min, respectively. However, faster bacteria killing activity wasobserved for free BTAC against both bacteria. Free BTAC obtained 100%bacteria inhibition before 60 min. Thus, prolonged and efficientantibacterial properties cannot be expected if free drug is used. Thisfact is important, when the cytotoxicity results are considered. Inaddition, the sample PCL 2.5, showed significantly lower Log reductionthan S 2.5 (P-value: 0.01). This was due to the absence of PES, whichalso was mentioned in drug release sections.

Cytotoxicity Test

Optimally, a wound dressing should not release toxic products or produceadverse reactions, which could be evaluated through in vitro cytotoxictests. One of the most important advantages of bacteria triggeredsystems is that these systems can reduce possible cytotoxicity byreducing the unneeded release of antibacterial drugs. In the previoussection the antibacterial efficacy of the BTAC-loaded nanofibers wasanalyzed. To gain insight into the impact on cell viability of thenanofibers, human dermal fibroblast cells were exposed to membranes. MTTresults for dressings within 24 h contact with fibroblast cells arecollected and provided in in FIG. 7 and FIG. 8.

FIG. 7 shows fibroblast cell viability after 24 h of contact with thenanofibers.

FIG. 8 superimposes the data of FIG. 7 for fibroblast cell viabilitywith viability of S. aureus and E. coli over the same period of time,illustrating the lethal effect of the antibacterial nanofibers onmicrobes without comparable detriment to the fibroblast cells.

Acceptable viability of cells was recorded for most of the samples withand without BTAC. Untreated nanofiber (CS nanofiber with no drug in thecore) showed the highest cell viability. There is no significantdifference between cell viability of untreated and PCL nanofibers(P=0.471), which indicated the low release of BTAC in PCL nanofibers.The same result was observed in antibacterial test, when there was asignificant difference between antibacterial efficacy of PCL and othersamples. This result showed higher degradability of PES in response tobacterial activity.

There were no significant differences between cell viability of singleand core shell nanofibers with 2.5% and 3.5% BTAC. However, at higherconcentration of BTAC a significant difference between cell viability ofS 4.5 and CS 4.5 (P=0.008) was observed.

To compare the cell viability of BTAC-loaded nanofibers and free BTAC,an un-encapsulated BTAC was included in the MTT assay. As nanofiberswere in contact with fibroblast cells for 24 h, the concentration ofBTAC for MTT assay was chosen to be equivalent to the cumulative releaseof BTAC from S 3.5 within 24 h (34 mg/L). Cell viability of free BTACshowed a significant difference with S 3.5 and even CS 4.5. The lowercell viability of free BTAC was due to the fact that there was nocontrol on the release. According to FIG. 7, BTAC damages almost half offibroblast cells (55.2±4.0 compared to 80.5±3.8 for CS 3.5). An aim ofthe technology is to provide the least cytotoxicity in the wound site.Fibroblasts are critical in supporting normal wound healing, involved inkey processes such as breaking down the fibrin clot, creating new extracellular matrix (ECM) and collagen structures to support the other cellsassociated with effective wound healing, as well as contracting thewound. Besides, although the free drug showed high antibacterialefficacy in the short time assessed, it would not be efficient over alonger time period, since the drug can be easily washed out by woundexudate. With respect to no obvious cytotoxicity shown in the MTT assay,and strong antibacterial activity toward S. aureus and E. coli in vitro,CS 3.5 could be utilized in wound dressing for treatment of chronicwounds.

According to the cell vitality results, it can be concluded that drug inthe cell media (even in the 24 h) is not at a cytotoxic level. To have abetter understanding, the drug release of S 2.5 was measured in thefibroblast cell supernatant within 1 h. As expected, the percentage ofcumulative release in the fibroblast supernatant (11.3±0.5) wassignificantly lower than in bacteria supernatant (32.2±0.8) (P=0.0001).Thus, it can be concluded that fibroblast cell activity does notinitiate the degradation of nanofibers. Further, the pH for fibroblastsupernatant was 7 and for the bacteria supernatant, the pH was 5.3. Theacidic pH of bacterial supernatant could be the other factor thatfacilitates the degradation. To test this, the percentage of cumulativerelease of S 2.5 was measure in a pH=5 buffer within 1 h (12.1±0.4),which was significantly higher than TSB (10.1±0.4), but lower thanbacteria supernatant. It can be concluded that both the lipase enzymeactivity and an acidic pH play role in the degradation of nanofibers.

S 3.5 and CS 3.5 were repeatedly challenged by fresh 8 Log S. aureus(29213) for 4 times (each for 2 hours). After 2 hours, samples werewashed with PBS, immersed in fresh bacterial suspension, andre-suspended. This re-suspension was repeated twice more for a total of4 challenges.

Table 4 provides the data obtained from the repeated challenge of thenanofiber membranes.

TABLE 4 Repeated challenge of the nanofiber membranes 1^(st) 2 h 2^(nd)2 h 3^(rd) 2 h 4^(th) 2 h % Log₁₀ % Log₁₀ % Log₁₀ % Log₁₀ CS 3.5 100.08.8   30 ± 14 0.2 44.9 ± 7.3 0.3 50.6 ± 2.1  0.3 S 3.5 100.0 8.8 60.6 ±9 0.5 21.2 ± 9.9 0.1 24.7 ± 12.3 0.1

FIG. 9 depicts the data of Table 4, showing the repeated challenge ofthe nanofiber membranes (CS 3.5 and S3.5) with 8 Log S. aureus (29213).

Bacteria inhibition of both samples within the first 2 h was 100%.Afterward, the samples were immersed in the new bacteria suspension forthe next 2 h, bacteria inhibition of S 3.5 is still higher than CS 3.5(P=0.033). In the third and fourth repetitions, bacteria inhibition of S3.5 significantly declined (from 60.6% to 21.2% and 24.7%) and thebacterial reduction by CS 3.5 is significantly higher than S 3.5(44.9±7.3% versus 21.2±9.9%, p=0.029<0.05; 50.6±2.1% versus 24.7±12.3%,P=0.023<0.05).

The antibacterial efficacy of the core-shell nanofibers was higher thansingle ones over a prolonged time period, highlighting the advantages ofusing these fibers in wound healing, and prevention of recurringinfections.

Core-shell nanofibers were formed which could be degraded in response tobacteria and provide on-demand antibacterial drug or biocide release.This system showed higher biocide release when in contact with bacteriasupernatant than in TSB. More controllable release was shown withcore-shell nanofibers than with single ones, which could thus provide aslow, prolonged, efficient bacteria killing activity. Due to selectiverelease of nanofibers, high cell viability was shown in fibroblasts. Theefficient antibacterial activity of the nanofibers, without severecytotoxicity, makes these fibers useful in wound healing applications.

One important application anticipated for the present invention isfabrication of nanofibrous wound dressings that enable wound infectionmonitoring and on-demand drug delivery. Currently available commercialantimicrobial wound dressings passively deliver biocides to the woundbed even in the absence of pathogens. As recited herein, this hasseveral drawbacks. First, the high level of constant release of biocidescan cause extra pain to patients. Second, the majority of biocides haveundesirable cytotoxicity to skin cells, leading to delayed woundhealing. Also, prolonged subthreshold levels of exposure to biocides canlead to bacterial resistance.

To improve wound care and cut down the occurrence of bacterialresistance, clinicians need to be informed of the presence of bacterialwound infection at the first occurrence, and need the ability to treatand monitor the infection without having to remove the dressing, therebyavoiding the secondary trauma, pain, and extra labor costs associatedwith dressing changes. Virulence factors secreted by pathogens have beenused as triggering factors in a few bacteria-responsive systems.However, the response in these systems is either too low in sensitivityor too slow in identifying bacteria to be of practical value. Commercialdressings combining wound infection monitoring and on-demand drugdelivery have not been developed. In one preferred embodiment, theantibacterial core-shell nanofibers provided by the present invention,can be used to fabricate an innovative theranostic antimicrobialdressing that can both report infection with tunable sensitivity anddeliver biocides on-demand. This is achieved by fabricating the noveltheranostic mats as disclosed herein with a swellable diagnostic shelland a core fiber loaded with biocides. The core-shell structurednanofibers report the presence of bacteria in an unprecedentedlysensitive and prompt manner, and automatically release biocides inresponse to these bacteria.

High sensitivity and reliability in detecting bacterial infection isachieved by a) electrospinning a novel polymer bearing two reportingdyes into nanofibers to create high surface area in direct contact withthe wound; b) adopting a core-shell structure to creatively enrich thecolor probes on the surface of already very fine nanofibers to maximizethe density of those probes on the surface; c) optimizing the density ofthe fibers for the maximum sensitivity with the least wasted material.Also, to increase the reliability of detection, dyes with colorimetricand fluorescent features are used. The theranostic mats allow patientsand frontline staff to monitor the status of the wound with naked eyes,and advanced care providers to evaluate the status with a portable UVlamp for earlier detection. The theranostic mats provide interweavedmechanisms of on-demand release of biocides for automatic treatment ofwound infections with different levels of severity. One portion ofbiocides is bonded to the nanofiber shell via bacterial enzyme cleavablelinks. Another portion of biocides is incorporated in the core of thecore-shell nanofibers. The poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) based shell of thetheranostic mats swell in basic pH (due to bacterial infection) todeliver the biocides from the core through diffusion. This novel designcan tune the release of biocides through two delivery mechanisms,allowing complex design of drug release profile to suit the needs ofvarying wounds and patients.

In a preferred embodiment, the present invention provides a uniquecombination of elements comprising a seamlessdiagnosis-treatment-feedback system that can be incorporated into amultilayer nanofiber dressing with on-demand, antibacterial components.A multilayer wound dressing will decrease healing time, support tissuerepair and regeneration, eliminate painful dressing changes with layeredremoval, and prevent the onset of bacterial infection with on-demandantibacterial agents. Layered removal leaves the contact layer appliedto a wound in place while the outer layers of the dressing are removed.Color changes in the reporting dyes would indicate a response to thepresence of bacterial infection. The availability of a practical andconvenient wound management system for patients with skin injuries andfor example, chronic wounds caused by severe burns, and by pressure,venous, and diabetic ulcers will meaningfully contribute to improvingthe quality of life for these patients and reducing overall healthcarecost in long term.

In the preceding description, for purposes of explanation, numerousdetails are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding ofthe embodiments. However, it will be apparent to one skilled in the artthat these specific details are not required. For example, specificdetails are not provided as to whether the embodiments described hereinare implemented using computer hardware or software, or a combinationthereof.

The above-described embodiments are intended to be examples only.

Alterations, modifications and variations can be effected to theparticular embodiments by those of skill in the art. The scope of theclaims should not be limited by the particular embodiments set forthherein, but should be construed in a manner consistent with thespecification as a whole.

REFERENCES

The following references are hereby incorporated by reference.

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1-21. (canceled)
 22. A core-shell nanofiber comprising: a corecomprising an antibacterial agent and a biocompatible polymer; and ashell surrounding said core comprising a bacterially degradable polymer,wherein said shell is degradable in response to contact with a bacterialenzyme to expose said core.
 23. The core-shell nanofiber of claim 22,wherein the shell is degradable to expose said core within eight (8)hours of exposure to said bacterial enzyme.
 24. The core-shell nanofiberof claim 23, wherein said bacterial enzyme is lipase.
 25. The core-shellnanofiber of claim 23, wherein said core is degradable in response tocontact with said bacterial enzyme to expose said antimicrobial agent.26. The core-shell nanofiber of claim 25, wherein a portion of saidantimicrobial agent is bonded to said shell via bacterial enzymecleavable links.
 27. The core-shell nanofiber of claim 22, wherein aportion of said antimicrobial agent is positioned at or near saidsurface by electrospinning.
 28. The core-shell nanofiber of claim 27,wherein said shell is degradable in basic pH and bacterial enzyme torelease said antibacterial agent from said core through said shell bydiffusion.
 29. The core-shell nanofiber of claim 22, wherein said shellis degradable by bacterial activities including at least lipasesecretion and release of products that act to cause an acidic pH. 30.The core-shell nanofiber of claim 22, wherein said antibacterial agentcomprises any of a drug, a biocide, or an antimicrobial compound, andsaid antibacterial agent exhibits any of anti-fungal, anti-bacterial oranti-viral activity.
 31. A core-shell nanofiber comprising: a corecomprising an antibacterial agent and a biocompatible polymer; and ashell surrounding said core comprising a bacterially degradable polymer,wherein said shell is degradable in response to contact with a bacterialenzyme to expose said core, and wherein said core is degradable inresponse to contact with bacterial enzyme to expose said antimicrobialagent.
 32. The core-shell nanofiber of claim 31, wherein a portion ofsaid antimicrobial agent is bonded to said shell via bacterial enzymecleavable links.
 33. The core-shell nanofiber of claim 32, wherein aportion of said antimicrobial agent is positioned at or near saidsurface by electrospinning.
 34. The core-shell nanofiber of claim 33,wherein said shell is degradable in basic pH and bacterial enzyme torelease said antibacterial agent from said core through said shell bydiffusion.
 35. The core-shell nanofiber of claim 31, wherein said shelland said core are degradable by bacterial activities including at leastlipase secretion and release of products that act to cause an acidic pH.36. The core-shell nanofiber of claim 31, wherein said antibacterialagent comprises any of a drug, a biocide, or an antimicrobial compound,and said antibacterial agent exhibits any of anti-fungal, anti-bacterialor anti-viral activity.
 37. A core-shell nanofiber comprising: a corecomprising an antibacterial agent and a biocompatible polymer; and ashell surrounding said core comprising a bacterially degradable polymer,said shell being degradable within eight (8) hours in response tocontact with a bacterial enzyme to expose said core, and said core isdegradable in response to contact with bacterial enzyme to expose saidantimicrobial agent, wherein a portion of said antimicrobial agent isbonded to said shell via bacterial enzyme cleavable links, and a portionof said antimicrobial agent is positioned at said surface byelectrospinning.
 38. The core-shell nanofiber of claim 37, wherein saidshell is degradable in basic pH and bacterial enzyme to release saidantibacterial agent from said core through said shell by diffusion. 39.The core-shell nanofiber of claim 38, wherein said shell and said coreare degradable by bacterial activities including at least lipasesecretion and release of products that act to cause an acidic pH. 40.The core-shell nanofiber of claim 39, wherein said antibacterial agentcomprises any of a drug, a biocide, or an antimicrobial compound. 41.The core-shell nanofiber of claim 40, wherein said antibacterial agentexhibits any of anti-fungal, anti-bacterial or anti-viral activity.